How Far Is Distance?
Nathan O. Lowell, Ph.D.
National Center on Low-Incidence Disabilities
Introduction
- Problem
- Research Questions
- Methods
- Findings
- Your Questions
Notes:
Transactional Distance Theory
Perceived distance is a function of
- Dialog
- Structure
- Learner Autonomy
Notes:
The Problem
Transactional Distance Theory
- Does not match with experience
- Explains only a small amount of variability in distance
- Existing research is limited
Notes:
Literature
Saba & Shearer
- Used one-on-one video conferencing
- One session per individual
Chen & Willets
- Use compressed video linked classrooms
- Compared perceptions between and within
Notes:
Possible Other Factors
- Fluency
- Social Presence
- Context
Notes:
Fluency
- Two headed domain
- Subject matter knowledge
- Language expertise
- Contributes to "transparency"
- Less attention to transmission should result in reduced perception of distance
Notes:
Social Presence
Original Short, Williams, Christie definition:
The maximum capacity of a given communications channel to transmit social cues.
In English:
You can't see over the phone.
Notes:
Social Presence
Current usage of the term:
The degree of social salience of an individual in a social engagement.
In English
The degree to which you are percieved as "being there" by the others present.
Notes:
Context
Tinto on persistence
- Forces in favor > Forces against
- "Connectedness" is the overriding factor
Each student has unique personal context
Notes:
Research Questions
- To what extent does context contribute
- To what extent does social presence contribute
- To what extent does fluency contribute
- To what extent does the combination of context, social presence, and fluency predict perceived transactional distance
Notes:
Methods
- Survey 147 students in 19 classes
- Modified Chen and Willits (1998) transactional distance instrumentation
- Short, Williams, Christie (1976) social presence instrumentation
- Context and Fluency created for the study
Notes:
Methods
- Cronbach alpha analysis for internal consistency
- Peer reviewed for face validity on new items
- Regression analysis to confirm validity of Transactional Distance Theory on the study population
Notes:
Methods
- RQ 1 through RQ 3 used Pearson Correlation
- RQ 4 used linear regression
Notes:
Findings: Reliabilities
- Not Reliable
- Dialog Not Reliable? (.76)
- Context
- Reliable
- Structure
- Independence
- Interdependence
- Social Presence
- Fluency
Notes:
Findings: Transactional Distance
- Correlations Significant
- Dialog was not reliable
- Interdependence in the wrong direction
| | Distance to
Teacher |
| Dialog | -0.46* |
| Structure | 0.21* |
| Interdependence | 0.16* |
| Independence | -0.17* |
* p < .05
Notes:
Findings: Transactional Distance
Correlations
- Only Dialog and Independence
Dialog wasn't reliable
| | Distance to
Students |
| Dialog | -0.42* |
| Structure | 0.04 |
| Interdependence | 0.08 |
| Independence | -0.21* |
* p < .05
Notes:
Findings: Transactional Distance
- Regression model of Transactional Distance
- Distance to Teacher (N = 147)
| Factor | Coeff | Std Error | Beta |
| Dialog | -0.09 | 0.02 | -5.48* |
| Structure | 0.02 | 0.01 | 1.79 |
| Interdependence | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.61 |
| Independence | -0.04 | 0.02 | -1.54 |
* p < .05; R2 = 0.25
Notes:
Findings: Transactional Distance
- Regression model of Transactional Distance
- Distance to Other Students (N = 147)
| Factor | Coeff | Std Error | Beta |
| Dialog | -0.09 | 0.02 | -5.16* |
| Structure | 0.00 | 0.01 | -0.31 |
| Interdependence | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.08 |
| Independence | -0.04 | 0.02 | -1.98* |
* p < .05; R2 = 0.20
Notes:
Research Question 1.
To what extent does context contribute to perceived transactional distance?
- Correlation: Distance to Teacher
- Correlation: Distance to Other Students
- Context does not appear to contribute to perceptions of distance
- Context NOT reliable
Notes:
Research Question 2.
To what extent does social presence contribute to perceived transactional distance?
- Correlation: Distance to Teacher
- Correlation: Distance to Other Students
- Students who reported higher levels of social presence reported lower levels of transactional distance.
Notes:
Research Question 3.
To what extent does fluency contribute to perceived transactional distance?
- Correlation: Distance to Teacher
- Correlation: Distance to Other Students
- Students who reported higher levels of fluency reported lower levels of transactional distance to other students.
Notes:
Research Question 4.
To what extent does the combination of context, social presence, and fluency predict perceived transactional distance?
- Regression: Distance to Teacher
| Factor | Coeff | Std Error | Beta |
| Intercept | -0.15 | 1.31 | -0.11 |
| Social Presence | 0.17 | 0.02 | 8.57* |
| Context | -0.11 | 0.07 | -1.46 |
| Fluency | -0.01 | 0.02 | -0.26 |
* p < .05; R2 = 0.55
Notes:
Research Question 4.
To what extent does the combination of context, social presence, and fluency predict perceived transactional distance?
- Regression: Distance to Other Students
| Factor | Coeff | Std Error | Beta |
| Intercept | -4.31 | 1.30 | -3.31 |
| Social Presence | 0.16 | 0.02 | 8.15* |
| Context | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.43 |
| Fluency | 0.08 | 0.02 | -3.16* |
* p < .05; R2 = 0.57
Notes:
Research Question 4.
To what extent does the combination of context, social presence, and fluency predict perceived transactional distance?
- Linear regression modeling explains
- 55% of the variability in perceived distance to the teacher
- 57% of the variability in perceived distance to other students.
Notes:
Research Question 4.
To what extent does the combination of context, social presence, and fluency predict perceived transactional distance?
- Stepwise regression adding social presence to transactional distance
- distance to the teacher predicts 47%
- distance to other students predicts 30%
- Adding context and fluency are negligible
Notes:
Post Hoc Analyses
- Novice vs Expert in distance courses
- Age of participant
- Data collection period
Notes:
Novice vs Expert
- About 25% sampled in first online class
- About 25% sampled after completing 3 or more
- Novices reported higher distance to teacher
- No difference on distance to other students
- Dialog achieved reliability for Experts
- Dialog, Presence and Fluency generally significantly correlated for both groups on both distances
Notes:
Age of participant
- About half were 35 or younger
- No differences between groups on either distance
- No substantial shifts in reliability
- Dialog and social presence significantly correlated (Dialog not reliable)
- Same basic patterns as whole group
Notes:
Data collection period
- About half (n=77) collected Early
- About 25% collected Mid and Late
- No significant differences in perceptions of distance across groups
- Reliability patterns similar to whole group
- Correlations significant on dialog and social presence
Data collection period
- Interdependence significant Early
- Distance to teacher: 0.26*
- Distance to other students: 0.22*
- "Wrong" direction
- Independence significant Late
- Distance to teacher: -0.44 *
- Distance to other students: -0.50*
- Natural selection at work?
Notes:
Large Implications
- Transactional Distance Theory predicts very little of the variability in perceived distance
- Dialog needs attention in order to develop a more robust instrumentation
- Social presence is an important consideration
Notes: