Spiro, R. J., Feltovich, P. J., Jacobson, M. J., & Coulson, R. L. (1991). Cognitive flexibility, constructivism, and hypertext: Random access instruction for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains.
The main argument in this article is one where Spiro et. al. states the need for different instructional strategies and techniques to be used at the advanced knowledge acquisition level versus the type of instructional strategies that are traditionally used at the introductory level. For example, if a student is learning the basic origin and insertion sites of muscles in an introductory anatomy class, the student would most likely use traditional memorization techniques and the knowledge that is acquired through this process is restated in the exact way it was learned. (No application of the knowledge is used at this point in the learning process). However, when the student takes an advanced anatomical course such as Kinesiology (study of the muscles and body movement), the student now has to master complex concepts of the muscle including how the muscle moves, what forces lengthen the muscle while at the same time, which muscles counterbalance each other with specific movements, etc. The knowledge domains here include anatomical understanding, concepts of physics, neurological activation, etc. It is at this point where Spiro, et. al. believes that "conceptual mastery and flexible knowledge application become paramount goals, that the complexity and across-case diversity characteristic of ill-structured domains become a serious problem for learning and instruction" (p.26). He believes that mastery over complex subject matter, such as Kinesiology, requires an instructional model that is different from the traditional cognitive theories. His theory is a "Cognitive Flexibility Theory," which he defines as an instructional technique where "understandings are constructed by using prior knowledge to go beyond the information given and the prior knowledge that is brought to bear is itself constructed, rather than retrieved intact from memory, on a case-by case basis" (p.28). His theory allows for flexible use of prior knowledge as it is applied to learning more advanced concepts.
Through his research, Spiro, et. al. found that many learning deficiencies occur at the advanced knowledge acquisition level. Several learning deficiencies occur because teachers use traditional teaching methods with complex subjects and those methods are inadequate in order for the student to grasp advanced knowledge concepts. Some of the other problems he found with students trying to grasp advanced knowledge concepts include several types of bias’ that occur with the learning process. The first bias is "additivity bias." This type of bias assumes that when complex concepts are broken down and taught in single increments, it is assumed that students will retain these individual increments and piece that knowledge into the whole concept for which it was intended. Similar to additivity bias is "discreteness bias" where again a single complex concept is broken down into discrete steps in order to be taught. The third type of bias he mentions is "compartmentalization bias." Here Spiro et. al. again refers to concepts that are "highly interdependent," yet they are taught in isolation of each other, meaning the student misses how each concept, when connected, relates to each other. Collectively, "oversimplification" of the advanced learning process occurs with all three types of biases.
A flexible learning environment is the key to conquering the learning of advanced concepts, according to Spiro et. al. In this type of environment, the advanced knowledge concepts are presented in a number of ways so they can be learned and applied in a number of ways to new knowledge concepts. Spiro et. al. felt that this could be accomplished through the use of a "multidimensional hypertext system" or computer based porgram. In this computer simulated system, students are taught to "reassemble" (versus retrieve) preexisting knowledge and apply the reassembled knowledge to fit the new learning situation. The knowledge learned is then applied in a variety of different case scenarios and the more complex concepts are learned in a flexible manner. Spiro. et.al. refers to this type of instruction as "Random access Instruction" (p.25), which is the basis for his computer based design of "Cognitive Flexibility Hpertexts" which are used in the construction of ill-structured knowledge domains. An ill-structured knowledge domain is one that "involves the simultaneous interactive involvement of multiple, wide-application conceptual structures where the pattern of conceptual incidence and interaction varies substantially across cases nominally of the same type" (p.25). He uses cardiovascular pathology as an example. Because each case of cardiovascular pathology varies from patient to patient, the physician has to have a basic understanding of several concepts involved with the cardiovascular system plus he or she has to apply that knowledge to the new case at hand.
Spiro’s Flexibility Hpertext system teaches students to take knowledge learned at an introductory level and apply and transfer that knowledge in a manner that develops comprehension and a construction of meaning of more complex concepts. Each case that is presented in the Flexibility Hypertext system "is shown to be a complex entity requiring for its understanding multiple conceptual representations, with the role of non-additive conceptual interdependencies highlighted" (p. 31). In the traditional cognitive learning situation, memorization of single concepts are taught and learned. Key concepts in the acquisition of knowledge of advanced concepts, according to Spiro’s theory, include constructing new knowledge and applying new knowledge in a number of ways to different real life case scenarios (or being flexible in transferring knowledge to new domains). I view this as a "Basket-n-Robbins" approach to learning advanced concepts where the instructor presents various ways to learn complex material and the student has various ways to understand and make meaning of the advanced material as well as apply those meanings to several different real-life learning situations. Spiro’s metaphor is one of "criss-crossing the landscape" where a student looks at an issue (concept) in multiple ways which in turn gives flexible understanding of ill-structured concepts. The concepts are taught in interconnected ways so the student can gain an understanding of advanced knowledge from different perspectives.
Discussion Questions:
1) Do you agree that different teaching techniques are needed to teach introductory material versus advanced concept material? Why or why not?
2) Are there other methods similar to the Hypertext system that we could use or develop that would accomplish the same acquisition of knowledge in advanced topic areas?
3) What are the important instruction methods that need to be incorporated in teaching advanced subject material? (i.e. problem-solving, transfer of learning, etc.)
4) Is there an "ideal" instructional method for the students you teach or hope to teach in the future?