Brophy, J. (1999). Toward a model of the value aspects of motivation in education: Developing appreciation for particular learning domains and activities. Educational Psychologist, 34(2), 75-85.

Many of our readings so far have focused on the expectancy component of the expectancy x value model of motivation; that is, "the degree to which students expect they can perform tasks successfully if they apply themselves" (Brophy, Motivating Students to Learn, p. 14). This article focuses on the value component of the model: "the degree to which they value those rewards as well as the opportunity to engage in the processes involved in performing the task itself" (also p. 14).

Proposed Principles of the Value Aspect of Motivation

The purpose of the article is to suggest concepts and principles that might be of use in a theoretical model of value aspect of motivation. Specifically, Brophy indicates areas for which the model would be useful: "acquisition and nurturance of interest in, appreciation for, or continuing motivation to pursue particular to pursue particular topics or genres of cognitive experiences related to content-area learning" (p. 75).

He admits there is a great deal that we don’t know about the value component and describes what we currently understand about it:

• Content and activities need to match students’ cognitive levels in order to be meaningful
• Supportive and collegial social context is desirable (learning community)
• Extrinsic pressures or incentives should not be used in ways to undermine intrinsic motivation
• Preexisting interest can lead to deeper processing and better retention of new information

He also describes how existing theories (achievement motivation, goal, flow, intrinsic motivation, attribution) suggest little or nothing about the value component, even though some extrapolations can be drawn from them.

Brophy proposes "two key features of motivationally optimal learning situations": (1) optimal matching and (2) content/activities that a student perceives to be relevant or potentially relevant to his/her identity/agenda. Just as learning goals must be at the appropriate cognitive level for a student, Brophy suggests that learning goals must also be at an appropriate motivational level for a student. The concepts of motivational readiness/optimal match suggest that activities and learning domains must be appropriate for what the student already knows so that interest is stimulated. In practical terms, they must be familiar enough and attractive enough to the student to encourage motivation to learn. As a way of understanding these motivational levels, he proposes a motivational equivalent to Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): situations may be above a student’s motivational ZPD (he is not ready to appreciate the value of the activity/domain, even with help), within the motivational ZPD (she is ready to be motivated but needs assistance to learn to value the activity/domain), and below the motivational ZPD (he is already motivated and values the activity or domain). In Table 2, Brophy describes nine learning situations as described by combinations of cognitive ZPD and motivational ZPD. In terms of motivational readiness/optimal match, activities/content should be targeted at the student’s motivational ZPD (can appreciate with help) or below (already appreciates the content).

Brophy’s second key feature addresses perceived and real relevance of the activity/learning domain to the student. Ideally, a student identifies with an activity or domain, just as she identifies with a style of music or a hobby: "This is for me!" and "I want to do this!" Identification can explain why some individuals value certain learning domains while others do not, why some cultural groups appreciate the value of certain activities over others.

Practical Recommendations

The section on practical methods (curriculum content and instructional strategies) is familiar to us in that they are similar to those described in our textbook. In summary:

• Teach what is worth knowing (curriculum) — focus on what is at least potentially relevant to students & their lives outside of school; set worthwhile goals and objectives; communicate the value of these activities to the students; include authentic (life application) activities
• Scaffolding learning appreciation (instruction) — raising students’ consciousness of the purposes and goals of activities think beyond teaching for understanding and teach for understanding, appreciation, and life application; motivated learning schema (need to understand the domain in order to appreciate it); more than interest in a topic, this includes cognitive strategies and metacognitive control (expert vs. novice); Brophy proposes the idea of "scaffolded appreciation," which explains acquisition of values and interests in an area; sociocultural learning and socialization, combining cognitive and motivational aspects: modeling (such as thinking out loud), coaching (guidance and feedback), scaffolding (gradual transfer of the management of motivational tasks to the novice)

Qualifications & Limitations

Brophy states that these principles are meant to complement not replace other theories of motivation. He also suggests that these theories are probabilistic, that is, even in ideal mediated classroom situations, not all students will value all activities/domains. Finally, these ideas are theoretical, only hypotheses; carefully designed research is needed to test them.

Discussion Questions

• Does it make sense to think of motivational zones of proximal development? How can this concept apply in your situation?
• In what ways can you see the process of identification influencing the motivation of people around you (students, co-workers, etc.)?
• How have people influenced you to value an activity, subject area, learning domain, etc.? What techniques did they use? What reactions — cognitive, motivational, affective — did you have? How can this experience influence your own practice as a teacher/supervisor/employee/etc.?
• What do you think Brophy’s proposed concepts contribute to our knowledge of motivation? What value is there to focusing on these aspects of motivation?

[Reading Summaries]