Learning Theory: APOS  

APOS Theory in College Math (Theory)

Dubinsky starts by describing what he believe constitutes an acceptable theory in education. A theory should (1) support prediction, (2) possess explanatory power, (3) be applicable to a broad range of phenomena, (4) help organize thinking about learning phenomena, (5) serve as a tool for analyzing data, and (6) provide a language for communication about learning. He goes on to describe APOS theory in mathematics education. In APOS theory, a hierarchy of understanding is established for mathematical concepts: action, process, object, schema. Similar to Van Heile levels, APOS theory provides a framework for describing students' understanding while simultaneously acknowledging the constructivist viewpoint that understanding can exist on multiple levels and is unique to individuals. Interestingly, Dubinsky (the inventor of APOS) suggests that the most important instructional strategies for helping students construct internal representations of mathematics are cooperative learning and "having students write computer code to implement mathematical concepts" p. 13. The driving example of the article is a study into the genetic decomposition and related teaching of the mathematical concept of cosets in abstract algebra.

Learning Theory: Behaviorism  

Overview of Behaviorism (Theory)

Learning Theory: Cognitive Information Processing  

Cognitive Information Processing (Theory)

This chapter includes a thorough summary of the basic principles of cognitive information processing (CIP). CIP began with a three stage model for memory-- short term, working, and long term memory are seen as the basic mediums for cognitive processes. Subprocesses include attention, executive monitoring, pattern recognition, rehearsal, chunking, encoding, and retrieval. The summary also lists many of the major scientific results in CIP. Of particular interest are the studies that helped to establish the Stroop effect, primacy and recency effects, effective elaborative encoding methods, and possible models for long term memory and forgetting processes. The chapter concludes with some implications of the theory for learning and instruction.

Learning Theory: Cognitive Information Processing  

Psychological Foundations of Overconfidence (Theory)

Learning Theory: Cognitive Information Processing  

Cognitive Science Perspective on Calibration (Theory)

THE textbook on the cognition of people involved in making uncertain judgments.

Learning Theory: Cognitive Information Processing  

Calibration Curves and Other Postdiction Calibration Measures (Theory)

Techniques for measuring postdiction calibration, especially the calibration curve.

Learning Theory: Cognitive Information Processing  

Review of Calibration Research in 1960s and 70s (Theory)

This article reviews the large body of research in the 1960s and 70s into individuals’ calibration in assigning confidence ratings to objective statements (e.g., How confident are you that the following is true? “Israel is larger than Nepal”) . While this form of calibration is different from calibration in self-efficacy judgments, results from psychological experiments underscores factors influencing the accuracy of confidence judgments. O’Connor gleans several factors from the literature: (1) familiarity with task requirements (e.g., assigning probability values to feelings of uncertainty takes practice), (2) familiarity with the topic of interest (subject matter knowledge), and (3) adequate feedback (on the accuracy of prior judgments). For example, the widely reported tendency of people to be overconfident in assigning confidence values is much less likely when participants have deep understanding of the content domain. The author cites Sieber (1974) and Pitz (1974) as reporting very high calibration of college students in rating their confidence in attaining given final grades in a course. O’Connor situates the results in Beach and Mitchell’s contingencies model (behaviorism).

Learning Theory: Cognitive Information Processing  

Cognitive Information Processing (Theory)

This chapter includes a description of semantic memory (long term memory) from the cognitive information processing perspective. In this view, knowledge structures are viewed as concept maps with dual qualities of structuredness and associativity, which means that concepts are understood to exist in the mind in terms of relationships that are constructed among them. Qualities characterizing well-structured mental concepts of mathematical ideas include integratedness, connectedness, and correspondence. The discussion leads rather naturally to some implications of this model for long term memory in problem solving strategies. Instructional modes that might improve the three qualities of well-structured memory are suggested and developed around examples of problem solving tasks for children.

Learning Theory: Cognitive Information Processing  

Feeling-of-knowing Accuracy and Calibration of Postdictions (Theory)

First introduced the terms accuracy and bias, but used them for postdiction reading comprehension assessments, not self-efficacy judgments.

Learning Theory: Cognitive Information Processing  

Cognitive Information Processing (Theory)

Learning Theory: Complexity Science  

Neuroscience (Theory)

The authors motivate the need for a biological approach to cognitive sciences by describing some of the flaws inherent in the high threat, low challenge industrial-model of education in the western world. They describe the biological implications of fear and helplessness and list the four principles of neuroscience research: (1) the brain is innately motivated to search for meaning, (2) the search for meaning takes place by patterning, (3) emotions are critical for patterning, and (4) complex learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat. The "nuts and bolts" of brain research--with the exception of some discussion of the mechanisms of fear-- are omitted as the authors focus on educational implications of considering schooling in the context of the principles of neuroscience.

Learning Theory: Complexity Science  

Complexity Science (Theory)

Complexity science takes the perspective that learning occurs through "ongoing, recursively elaborative adaptations through which systems maintain their coherences within their dynamic circumstances" (p. 138). The article describes a conceptual shift made by complexity science theorists about learning systems. Instead of deterministic process-product views of learning, the authors suggest that learning should be viewed as a probabilistic (dynamical) system that exists simultaneously on many levels. Events have the tendency to emerge under certain conditions and four conceptual characteristics promote effective learning systems: (1) internal diversity, (2) redundancy, (3) decentralized control, and (4) organized (constrained) randomness. An example of the spontaneous emergence of a learning system among teachers in professional development classes is examined from the complexity science perspective.

Learning Theory: Complexity Science  

Connectionism (Theory)

Learning Theory: Complexity Science  

Assessment within Systems Theory (Theory)

Learning Theory: Complexity Science  

Neuroscience (Theory)

The author of this article uses the metaphor in neurosciences that the brain is a jungle (as opposed to a linear processor of stimuli or organism). Imaging technology and evolutionary principles support a neural Darwinism model for brain functioning. Sylwester suggests that the brain acts in many of the same ways that living organisms do; it has been shaped by selection over thousands of years and is organized at birth to be able to adapt to the kinds of cognitive demands that humans face. Nature and nurture exist in a balance as the genetic predispositions to learn and reorganize knowledge are reinforced by interactions and experiences. However, as the increasing cognitive demands of society begin to outpace our mental ability to adapt, we develop a technological brain to allow for distributed knowledge and abilities to respond to huge amounts of information. Sylwester also suggests several educational implications of neuroscience, mostly related to the metaphor of the mind as jungle. Maybe learning should take place in a complex environment, he suggests.

Learning Theory: General Learning Theory  

Results of Learning Research (including Transfer) (Theory)

Reports recent research in teaching and learning in the context of learner, knowledge, assessment, and community centeredness principles. Includes mentions to classroom communication systems, evaluation of learning environments, and teacher development programs. Owens et al. (2002) used HPL as their theoretical perspective. Good quote: "New tools of technology have the potential of enhancing learning in many ways. The tools of technology are creating new learning environments, which need to be assessed carefully."

Learning Theory: General Learning Theory  

Research Insights into Transfer and Learning (Theory - Mixed Methods)

This chapter includes in depth insights into transfer of learning. Starting with Thorndike's work in 1913 suggesting the likelihood of transfer depends on the similarities in elements between the learned task and novel task, the authors list a number of results. In particular, they point to (1) inital learning/astery is necessary for transfer, (2) overly contextualized knowledge can reduce transfer while abstract representations of knowledge can promote transfer, (3) transfer is best viewed as an active, dynamic processes rather than a passive end-product, and (4) the fact that all new learning involves transfer has implications for designing instruction. Some additional information includes examples of negative transfer, the role of learning for understanding vs. memorizing facts, time-spent initially learning material, motivation, and context-tied knowledge. The authors suggest that a major goal of schooling is to promote flexible transfer, and that transfer is best defined as an improvement in the time it takes someone to learn new material, rather than the dichotomous question of whether someone is able to "make the connection".

Learning Theory: General Learning Theory  

Overview of Learning Theories (Theory)

Learning Theory: General Learning Theory  

Overview of Learning Theories (Theory)

Reference to the whole book.

Learning Theory: General Learning Theory  

Overview of Learning Theories (Theory)

Learning Theory: General Learning Theory  

Overview of Learning Theories (Theory)

Learning Theory: General Learning Theory  

Some Learning Processes (Theory)

Learning Theory: General Learning Theory  

Basics of Learning (Theory)

Learning Theory: Models and Modeling  

Models and Modeling and Learning (Theory)

Models and modeling is outlined by the authors in terms of theory, practice, and research. The M&M perspective on knowledge, and how it derives from modeling cycles is described in the context of constructivism, followed by a description of the "paper airplane problem" as a model-eliciting activity. Then, the theoretical assumptions of the M&M paradigm are outlined so that teachers and researchers gain insight into the mechanisms for learning proposed by the theory. In Lesh's view, learning occurs as individuals make, test, refine, and retest models, or interpretations of the world. Its worth pointing out that this mechanism restricts the theory to the learning of math and science. The article also includes a list of the six design principles for problem solving tasks that might combine to form a model-eliciting activity.

Learning Theory: Models and Modeling  

Models and Modeling and Metacognition (Theory)

Learning Theory: Models and Modeling  

Models and Modeling and Problem Solving (Theory)

This chapter accepts Lester's (1983) definition that a problem is a task for which (1) the individual or group wants or needs to find a solution, (2) there is not a readily determined method of solution, and (3) the individual or group must construct a solution. The authors contrast the models and modeling approach to problem solving (which includes cyclical trial procedures to use given information to reach goals) to the information processing view of problem solving (which includes the selection of a procedure that will allow for the solution to a problem from the given information). The chapter argues that Polya and other's general strategies for problem solving are of little benefit to learners, and instead suggests that heuristics and strategies are largely tied to context. They summarize the six points of the chapter: (1) the most useful strategies and procedures are learning during the solution development process for specific problems, (2) the most important purpose of strategies is to help students refine and revise models, (3) any strategy can be productive or counterproductive (depending on the problem), (4) the productivity of a strategy depends on the purpose for using it, (5) problem solving strategies develop along a variety of dimensions, and (6) early levels of understanding often emerge in social aspects of development. The chapter also includes transcripts of students working on a model-eliciting activity.

Learning Theory: Radical Constructivism  

Overview of Constructivism (Theory)

Learning Theory: Radical Constructivism  

Learning Development (Theory)

Driscoll summarizes the developmental theories of Piaget, including his genetic epistemology, four-stage theory of cognitive development, and the developmental processes that Piaget believed explain learning and development. A particular focus is on Piaget's research into early development and the cognitive characteristics of sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational children are explained in some detail. Piaget's mechanisms for learning and epistemological shift to radical constructivism are also described, including a description of how assimilation, accommodation, and a biological drive to reach cognitive equilibrium (equilibration) promote learning. Driscoll also gives examples of the three kinds of knowledge according to Piaget: physical knowledge, logical-mathematical knowledge, and social knowledge.

Learning Theory: Radical Constructivism  

Radical Constructivism in Layman's Terms (Theory)

This is a transcript for a portion of a short interview with Ernst von Glasersfeld at the International Congress of Mathematical Education (1988). von Glasersfeld starts the interview by describing the long-standing difficulty in philosophy with the nature of reality: "Now, the skeptics who started right at the beginning of the history of philosophy of the western world have been adamant in telling us that no true picture of the real world is possible." (p.1) Radical constructivism, in his view, offers an interpretivist epistemology that avoids these difficulties by claiming that knowledge "instead of having to be a true representation of the world, has to work". This allows for the use of terms like cognitive fit or match, where people can evaluate their perceptions by checking them against their interpretations of the world and seeing if their beliefs seem consistent with their experience. The rest of the interview includes a description of trivial and radical constructivism along with some of the changes in education that might result from a shift toward a radical constructivist view of learning.

Learning Theory: Radical Constructivism  

Piaget and Development (Theory)

This chapter complements Driscoll's discussion of Piaget's theory of cognitive development in children from the perspective of mathematics. Evidence for cognitive differences in Piaget's four stages of development is presented by way of examples of Piagetian task-based experiments. The angles-of-a-triangle problem (in which students may discover that all angles of a triangle sum to 180), the dot-in-a-rectangle problem (in which students need to develop a coordinate system), the number conservation task (where matched items are separated and young children no longer believe there are the same number of both items), and the bending rod experiment (where participants must identify which qualities of a rod affect bending strength) are all outlined in the chapter. Instructional considerations arising from the Piagetian and Neo-Piagetian research programs are contrasted with some criticisms of the Piaget's stage theory. The clinical interaction method developed by Piaget for research is closely tied to the kinds of things that occur in teaching and represents a major advance in educational research.

Learning Theory: Radical Constructivism  

Biography of Bruner (Theory)

Learning Theory: Radical Constructivism  

History of Radical Constructivism (Theory)

This article chronicles the development of radical constructivism in mathematics education since Piaget and Bruner in the 1960s. The authors claim that the preconstructivist revolution and a shift in normal science away from the Cartesian epistemology of behavioral sciences converged to support naturalistic studies into learning during the later half of the 20th century. Competing forms of constructivism have existed from the beginning and constructivists have actively debated one another and empirical sciences on the philosophical assumptions supporting their theory. The article also suggests that constructivist approaches to research in mathematics education often lead to provocative and powerful new ways of teaching, which is an added benefit of the theoretical approach.

Learning Theory: Radical Constructivism  

Philosophy of Radical Constructivism (Theory)

This short chapter outlines the educational assumptions and implications of radical constructivism in the field of mathematics education. The point is made that Piaget's developmental theories and research methodology were widely accepted and thoroughly studied while his genetic epistemology was largely ignored until the 1980s. The interpretivist perspective of radical constructivism is outlined, including the belief that all knowledge is subjective and that mental representations of the world vary widely and do not simply exist as isomorphisms of an external reality. The article concludes by developing the radical constructivists approach to how researchers and teachers might view the making of abstraction and misconceptions (ways of thinking that are not viable in the learner's interpretations).

Learning Theory: Situated Cognition  

Critique of Situated Cognition (Theory)

Anderson et al. consider situated learning from the perspective of how situated learning theory addresses some of the issues central to cognitive science. They suggest that research contradicts many of the fundamental claims of situated cognition. In particular, they attribute four claims to social learning theory: (1) action is grounded in the concrete situation in which it occurs, (2) knowledge does not transfer between tasks, (3) training by abstraction is of little use, and (4) instruction needs to be done in complex social environments. This article was the first of a series of responses between Anderson et al. and Greeno in Educational Researcher.

Level: Secondary   Learning Theory: Situated Cognition  

A Situated Learning Follow-Up to Boaler (1998). (Theory - Qualitative)

In a follow-up to Boaler's (1998) 3-year case studies of Amber Hill (traditional school) and Pheonix Park (reform school), Boaler (2000) revises her discussion of the students' differential functioning in school work, traditional test items, and real-world tasks by considering the students' participations in their respective schools on macro-levels. From a communities-focused situated learning perspective, Boaler concludes that the students at Amber Hill learned the norms of doing "school mathematics" in a traditional, individualized, and closed environment. The students were successful at learning how to behave in the Amber Hill environment, and Boaler recasts her 1998 findings as simply representing the students' realization of how different school and "real-world" mathematics was for them. In other words, the communities of participation in which the Amber Hill students worked simply did not give the students reason to believe they should/ould use school mathematics in out-of-school settings. Boaler essentially argues for more situated-learning theoretical perspectives in considering both students' cognition and their participation.

Learning Theory: Situated Cognition  

Overview of Situated Cognition (Theory)

Level: Primary   Learning Theory: Situated Cognition  

Why Everyday Mathematics is Valuable (Theory)

In responding to Greiffenhagen and Sharrock (2008), Carraher (of "Math in the Streets" fame) explains the value in the Everyday Mathematics movement. Carraher believes Lave's work was valuable in the descriptive sense while not endorsing or rejecting Lave's critical project. Moreover, Carraher's intention is to integrate Everyday Mathematics into the mathematics education corpus and does not subscribe to Lave's epistemological stance that knowledge resides in contexts. The author refers to Vergnaud's framework of concepts as consisting of three components: invariants, symbols, and situations. Carraher argues that the examples of Everyday Mathematics help to emphasize the role of invariants in mathematical understandings (of street vendors for example) that need not translate into the formal symbols of school mathematics. Though some Everyday Mathematics examples show a very different understanding of numbers and arithmetic, Carraher explicitly rejects the contention that Everyday Mathematics is somehow better-- instead suggesting that students' everyday techniques be used as a "point of departure" in teaching the more powerful school techniques. He does not disagree with Greiffenhagen and Sharrock's contentions regarding the results of studying Everyday Mathematics (notably that it usually includes addition, subtraction, and multiplication of typically small and "round" numbers).

Learning Theory: Situated Cognition  

Transfer in Situated Cognition (Theory)

This is a wonderfully written theory piece on transfer in situated learning contexts. The authors aim to redefine transfer as situated generalization instead of the traditional definitions of application of knowledge or recognizing structural similarities between learned and novel tasks. The authors give two examples of students working in a computerized number environment as the students transfer their understandings of numbers to tasks designed to engender conflicts in the students' minds regarding common misconceptions about "multiplication makes bigger" and "division makes smaller" as well as the difficult idea of negative numbers.

Learning Theory: Situated Cognition  

Overview of Situated Cognition (Theory)

Driscoll summarizes situated cognition from the perspective that it represents a shift in a certain segment of the educational research community towards viewing learning from a sociological perspective. With a decreased emphasis on individual psychological factors, situated learning specialists like Lave and Wenger have proposed a model for learning that incorporates co-constructed knowledge and communities of practice. Wenger's four basic premises of situated learning-- we are social, knowledge is a matter of competence with respect to valued enterprises, knowing is the pursuit of such enterprises, and meaningful understanding of the world is the ultimate goal of learning-- are couched within the process of legitimate peripheral participation. Peripheral participation is the primary learning process in situated cognition, and is characterized by varying learning trajectories and the use of signs (semiosis). A number of instructional programs rooted in situated learning are listed toward the end of the chapter, including anchored instruction, apprenticeships, anchored instruction, and learning community approaches to instruction.

Learning Theory: Situated Cognition  

Defense of Situated Cognition (Theory)

In this article, Greeno responds to Anderson et al.'s (1996) claims that situated learning takes stances in education that are contradicted by research in the cognitive sciences. Rather than argue that Anderson was incorrect in his claims about learning, Greeno argues that situated learning theorists simply disagree with the assumptions that support Anderson's view of situated cognition. Greeno addresses each of the four claims made by Anderson by suggesting that, while the claims are appropriate considerations for cognitive information processing theory, the claims violate assumptions of situated learning. Where Anderson argues that a learner's cognitive load in complex environments can become so overwhelming that the ability to learn may suffer, Greeno simply states that from the situated learning perspective all learning is viewed as occurring in complex environments. Thus, there is no way to remove the complexity from environments and reduce learning to processes and factors. Knowledge is co-constructed and exists in the interactions among members of a community. When contrasted with the assumptions of CIP, the assumptions of situated learning make it possible to agree with Anderson's claims and simultaneously believe that they do not apply to situated learning.

Level: Primary   Learning Theory: Situated Cognition  

Rejecting Lave's Belief in Everyday vs. School Mathematics (Theory)

Greiffenhagen and Sharrock are deeply critical of Lave's arguments for Everyday Mathematics as essentially different-- and better than-- School Mathematics. By summarizing and critiquing Lave's evidence of "just plain folks" doing arithmetic while shopping, tailoring, and dieting, the authors give detailed alternative interpretations that place Everyday Mathematics within mathematics while suggesting the research is mainly descriptive, yet is used as part of Lave's larger critical project against Lave's belief that school institutionalizes a "Western mathematics should replace everyday mathematics" belief in elitist rationality. The authors aim to debunk Lave's much cited claims that shoppers perform hundreds of calculations "nearly error free" (98% accuracy) by carefully showing alternative interpretations of the data that suggest shoppers rarely do any arithmetic, and even abandon almost all calculations that cannot be easily done by either comparing prices directly or subtracting. They ultimately claim that school mathematics is not aimed at replacing students' everyday understandings while leaving them feeling inadequate, but rather a kind of training in the simultaneous beliefs that (1) there are many correct (or equivalent) ways of doing mathematics, and (2) it is sometimes important to not use already known techniques while learning a new technique. Greiffenhagen and Sharrock point to the basketball coach that requires her students to dribble with their weak hand-- the coach is not telling the players that dribbling with their strong hand is bad, but instead that they will benefit from temporarily suspending their current skill in order to learn a new one.

Learning Theory: Situated Cognition  

Defining Situated Cognition (Theory)

Learning Theory: Situated Cognition  

Situated Cognition's Impact on Research (Theory)

Learning Theory: Situated Cognition  

Situated Perspective of Pedagogical Knowledge (Theory)

Learning Theory: Social Cognitive Theory  

Motivation in Education (Theory)

See chapter 3 for "concepts of ability and motivation", including self-perceptions of ability from an SCT perspective. Also, chapter 6 has info on teacher efficacy and motivation.

Learning Theory: Social Cognitive Theory  

Social Cognitive Theory as Anti-Behaviorist (Theory)

Bandura gives the philosophical argument for Social Cognitive Theory as an anti-behaviorist approach to the question of whether there is a causal relationship between cognition and behavior.

Learning Theory: Social Cognitive Theory  

Defining Social Cognitive Theory (Theory)

Learning Theory: Social Cognitive Theory  

Overview of Self-Regulation (Theory)

This brief portion of Driscoll's text summarizes the work of Zimmerman and Schunk in self-regulation. As a concept in social cognitive theory, a large amount of research has looked into the dimensions of academic self-regulation and possible instructional interventions that might help students improve their self-regulatory behavior. Monitoring progress toward goals is described as being fundamental to what Zimmerman and Schunk call enactive feedback loops, which include three strategies: (1) observing one's performance, (2) comparing one's performance to a standard or goal, and (3) reacting and responding to the perceived differences. Thus, planning/orethought, monitoring of performance, and self-reflection contribute to a three-phased cycle of self-regulation. A point is made that self-regulation may or may not be "teachable" through modeling strategies that have been shown to be effective tools for self-regulation.

Learning Theory: Social Cognitive Theory  

Metacognition and prediction calibration for reading. (Theory)

See Chapter 4 for metacognition in constructivist mathematics. Also, Chapter 6 has information on test-predictions for students in reading.

Learning Theory: Social Cognitive Theory  

Modeling Self-efficacy, Outcome Expectations, and Choices (Theory)

great visual model

Learning Theory: Social Cognitive Theory  

Interview of Frank Pajares (Theory)

Pajares (Madewell & Shaughnessy, 2003) summarizes his views on self-efficacy and self-beliefs in educational psychology. He describes self-efficacy as “the confidence we have in our abilities” (p. 381) and states, “What we know, the skills we possess, or what we have previously accomplished are not always good predictors of subsequent attainments because the beliefs we hold about our capabilities powerfully influence the wayswe behave. Consequently, how we behave is mediated by our beliefs about our capabilities and is often better predicted by these beliefs than by the results of our previous performances.” (p. 381) Another good quote: “What seems clear, however, is that we should not tinker with overconfidence. Tailhard de Chardin wrote that “it is our duty as human beings to proceed as though the limits of our capabilities do not exist.” Who can ever assess a student’s full potential with complete accuracy? Students surprise us all the time, just as we surprise ourselves. We should be careful about attempting to “calibrate” a student’s self-efficacy beliefs. Improving students’ calibration—the accuracy of their self-efficacy beliefs—is an enterprise fraught with potential dangers. Remember that the stronger the self-efficacy, the more likely are persons to select challenging tasks, persist at them, and perform them successfully. Efforts to lower students’ efficacy beliefs should be discouraged. Improving students’ calibration should emphasize helping them to better understand what they know and do not know so that they may more effectively deploy appropriate cognitive strategies as they perform a task. We should keep carefully in mind that the issue of “accuracy” cannot easily be divorced from issues of well-being, optimism, resilience, and optimal functioning. Research findings support the notion that, as people evaluate their lives, they are more likely to regret the challenge not confronted, the contest not entered, the risk unrisked, and the road not taken as a result of underconfidence and self-doubt rather than the action taken as a result of overconfidence and optimism.” (p. 397)

Learning Theory: Social Cognitive Theory  

Overview of Social Cognitive Theory (Theory)

Learning Theory: Social Cognitive Theory  

Henry Ford Quote on Self-Efficacy (Theory)

"whether you think you can or that you can't, you're probably right"

Learning Theory: Social Cognitive Theory  

Albert Bandura (Theory)

Level: K-12   Learning Theory: Social Cognitive Theory  

Overview of Self-Beliefs and Self-Efficacy (Theory)

Level: Secondary   Learning Theory: Social Cognitive Theory  

Self-Efficacy in Adolescents (Theory)

Awesome book, with a chapter from Bandura himself (on how to measure self-efficacy), and a wide range of applications of self-efficacy research for adolescent learning.

Learning Theory: Social Cognitive Theory  

Overview of Social Cognitive Theory (Theory)

Learning Theory: Social Cognitive Theory  

Albert Bandura and Epistemology (Theory)

Learning Theory: Social Cognitive Theory  

Potential Relationships between Calibration and Self-Regulation (Theory)

Learning Theory: Social Cognitive Theory  

Self-Regulation and Achievement (Theory)

Self-regulation theory, with applications to classroom learning. See Chapter 7 for connections to constructivism.

Learning Theory: Social Constructivism  

Vygotsky and Social Constructivism (Theory)

Vygotsky's theoretical framework included (1) a focus on development, (2) a claim that higher mental processes have their origin in social processes, and (3) a belief that mental processes can only be understood in terms of the tools and signs that mediate them. Driscoll's summary of Vygotsky's social constructivist approach to learning includes a description of each of these principles, including some elements of his theory that oppose the assumptions of radical constructivism. Three processes are understood to drive learning: the zone of proximal development, cultural mediation, and internalization. Driscoll suggests that, although Vygotsky was interested in education, his work was banned in Russia for some time and he tended to focus on the processes underlying learning and development. Thus, the promise of his writings for instruction did not begin to surface in education until the 1980s, where it quickly became associated with scaffolding and reciprocal teaching.

Learning Theory: Social Constructivism  

Philosophy of Radical Constructivism (Theory)

According to Ernest, the varieties of constructivism can be categorized into four distinct theoretical frameworks: information-processing constructivism, weak (i.e., trivial, exogenous) constructivism, radical constructivism, and social constructivism. Ernest delves into the epistemological and philosophical orientation of each variety of constructivism and even addresses each varieties' stance toward ontology, epistemology, methodology, and pedagogy. The theories are contrasted according to their metaphors for the mind, models of the world, and relative emphasis on the individual and social aspects of learning. Ernest describes himself as a social constructivist.

Learning Theory: Social Constructivism  

History of Constructivism (Theory)

The exogenous (world centered) and endogenous (mind centered) views of the world, according to Gergen, are fraught with philosophical dilemmas and intellectual problems that are well understood and essentially irresolvable. Instead of arguing for one of the two approaches, Gergen and others claim that social constructivism provides a dialectical view of the world that, in essence, changes the subject when it comes to ontology and epistemology. The three principles of social constructionism are (1) Meaning is context dependent, (2) Meaning in language is achieved through social interdependence, and (3) Language primarily serves communal functions. Gergen goes on to describe several educational implications of the social constructionist stance, including the resulting diffusion of authority, the vitalization of student-teacher and student-student relationships, the generation of meaning through practice, and the breaking of content boundaries.

Learning Theory: Social Constructivism  

Vygotsky and Social Constructivism (Theory)