Maximizing the Learning Experiences of Pre-Service
Teachers through Reflective Engagement
Gloria Jean Rodman, Ph.D.
Asst. Professor of Curriculum and Instruction
Texas A & M University - Kingsville
System Center – San Antonio
E-mail: kfgjr00@tamuk.edu
Introduction
Experience in the classroom can reinforce the concept that self-reflection enables pre-service teachers to construct meaning from their work in the classroom (Costa & Kallick, 2000). It has been a practice in a teacher preparation program at a developing public state university for teacher candidates to be given the opportunity to collaborate with professionals in the classroom and to develop their ability to engage in reflective practice. This reflective experience occurs in collaboration with the university professor, classmates, mentor teacher and/or university partner and seeks to enrich the impact of the reconstruction, reorganization and application of theory to classroom practice. Reflective engagement helps pre-service teachers to actively consider and reconsider beliefs and practices that allow them to move toward metacognition in teaching (Moon, 2004) so as to improve their ability to monitor the decisions about what and how they teach.
It is a major responsibility of teacher education to facilitate a reflective, self-monitoring practice and to promote such a practice as a critical and active habit, which improves the pedagogical ability of pre-service teachers. This study sought to discover how pre-service students’ reflections focus on actions they take while in the classroom and how the application of the teaching-learning process in the classroom enables pre-service teachers to construct meaning from that application.
This study looks at how the reflective engagement of pre-service teachers reinforces the application of the teaching-learning process in the classroom and enables them to construct meaning from that application. Use of a structured classroom activity enabled pre-service teachers to engage in that reflection. The purpose of the study was to a) illuminate ways that pre-service teachers engage in reflection, b) discover the level of reflective engagement of the pre-service teachers, c) examine what pre-service teachers discovered about teaching through their reflection, and d) understand how the reflection undertaken by pre-service teachers impacted their pedagogical ability.
Literature Review
The importance of teacher candidates being able to develop their ability to engage in reflective practice has been supported by many theorists and practitioners in teacher education (Boud, Keogh, & Walker, 1985; Schon, 1996; Kettle & Sellers, 1996; Ellsworth, 2002). From a theoretical framework that was drawn from the works of Dewey (1933) and Schon (1983), the use of reflective practice encourages pre-service teachers to think critically about their practice (Pedro, 2005). Reflective practice helps pre-service teachers develop their ability to examine their own concepts, theories and beliefs about teaching and subject matter (Posner, 2005). As Dewey (1933) argued, learning from experience is enriched by reflecting on experience. Schon (1983) further developed reflection by defining two distinct ways that professionals practice reflection. Schon distinguished reflection-in-action as occurring in the experience when we connect our feelings to theories to inform our actions in the situation as it happens. He also described reflection-on-action as spending time exploring how and why reaction to an encounter unfolded. Both facets of reflection enable professionals to frame and reframe complex and ambiguous problems, test out various scenarios and modify their actions as a result (Schon, 1987). When we take reflection in and on action together, the theory proposed by Schon is important in explaining how processes, experiences and understanding generated through reflection can improve on what we do.
Reflection on an experience could be defined as thinking about an occurrence, examining an event from more than one perspective, and using the process to think about what happened, why it happened, and what else could have been done (Cruickshank & Applegate, 1981). It is viewed by many as the foundation to develop highest professional competence of a complex practice that is necessary for teachers to take control of their teaching and become empowered decision makers (Cole & Knowles, 2000; Osterman & Kottkamp, 2004; York-Barr, Sommers, Ghere & Montie, 2001). Some believe that it is only through teachers’ reflections on their own teaching that they become more skilled and capable teachers that are able to define their role in the context of educational goals (Ziechner & Liston, 1996). Larrivee (2006) believed that by engaging in systematic reflection about their work, teachers can become empowered decision makers who can act as change agents.
Some researchers have extended the study of reflective practices in teaching to include the impact reflection can have on self-awareness and how that can influence decisions partitioners make in the classroom. Reflective orientation to teaching is seen by Corcoran (2003) as an inquiry orientation that requires attention to one’s own actions in relation to intentions that lead to selecting an option or course of action based on the consequences on student learning. Houston and Warner (2000) believe that teacher education programs must assist prospective teachers to understand themselves, their values, and their drives prior to focusing on other students’ needs and aspirations, or ways to develop effective instructional strategies. According to them, reflective practice encourages that growth development.
Several recent studies have been conducted that look at the effect of reflective practice of pre-service teachers from a variety of approaches (Pedro, 2005; Long & Stuart, 2004; Zengaro & Iran-Nejad, 2007; Downey, 2008; and Ward & McCotter, 2004). Pedro’s (2005) qualitative, interpretive study explored how five pre-service teachers constructed meanings of reflective practice, and how these meanings informed their practice. Ward and McCotter (2004) analyzed student teacher reflections from two very different approaches to outcome-based teacher preparation and developed a rubric that illuminates the dimensions and qualities of reflection. Zengaro and Iran-Nejad (2007) looked at how multiple–source learning provides a new lens for the observation of reflective teaching and learning experience in a university-level literature-based writing class. Downey (2008) studied how guided reflection of a recorded teaching assignment enhanced development of knowledge, skills, and dispositions needed to be an effective educator. Long and Stuart (2004) focused on the reflections of teacher candidates about their experiences in an integrated mathematics and science methods course, and how that impacted their decisions as teachers.
The findings of these studies support the notion that the ability of pre-service teachers to develop understanding of reflection cannot be understated. They point the way to how reflective practice can and should be encouraged in different pedagogical contexts. In this study, pre-service teachers reported that thinking about what important tenets they learned in their educational psychology course made them more aware how their experience was helpful to them, and how to adapt the oftentimes more theoretical college classroom to the real world experience of the public school classroom where they still needed to develop their skills. Additionally, reflection encouraged and engaged them in thoughts about how their students were impacted by their reflective engagement.
Current Context
Pre-service teachers were active in the public school classroom for a field-based placement of eighty hours for one of two to three semesters prior to student teaching. Most students in Special Education began their pre-service experience in their second semester of their junior year. Kinesiology and Secondary Content Major pre-service teachers were in the first semester of their senior year. Along with their activities related to their other methodology classes, pre-service teachers in an education psychology class completed field based assignments related to cognition, modification, literacy, and motivation. They also completed a brief case study of an individual student, complete with formal individual observations of that particular student.
A lesson plan format that included a reflective section was used in all the courses throughout the program that include lesson preparation. The reflective section focused on their actions and their content decisions. Their activities and plans were evaluated by their university professor, their university partner, and their mentor teacher. Observations were paired with conferences and suggestions for improvement were made.
Further, at the end of field based placements, pre-service teachers shared some of their activities and experiences with their peers and submitted a mini-portfolio of their assignments and evaluations to their university professor. While seemingly similar to teacher preparation requirements of other universities, the reflective pieces particularly showcased the reflective practices of the pre-service teachers and allowed the pre-service teachers to utilize reflection to expand their understanding of involvement in the classroom setting.
Participants
Students in the teacher preparation program were from a current junior and senior campus growing to become a new four year university and program. As a result, all students arrive as transfer students and have a wide range of underclassman college experiences. Students tend to be non-traditional with the average age of thirty-two. A large majority of them are working full time and taking courses in the evening. Approximately one third of the teacher preparation program students are currently working as aides in schools. Of the pre-service teachers in this lab based educational theory class, the four class sections were made up of secondary content, kinesiology, and special education pre-service teachers as the course looked at the child and adolescent. The number of pre-service teachers by semester is indicated in Table 1.
The Study
Method
Pre-service teachers, in a theory based course about the behavior and development of students, were asked to respond to a series of questions that called for reflection about their recently completed eighty hour field-based experience in public school classrooms. As a part of this class reflection activity, pre-service teachers were prompted to respond to a series of structured questions that included, “What are three important things you learned from your field based placement?” The structured reflection questionnaire (Appendix) was given over one and a half years to six sections of a theory based educational psychology class, two sections each semester. A grounded theory methodology was used until data had been coded to preserve the pre-service teachers’ perspectives accurately in the results (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Glesne, 2006).
Student responses to the above question are included in this report. Pre-service teachers’ written responses were collected, coded, and entered verbatim. Their responses were then reviewed by the author for accuracy. A group of colleagues then reviewed the responses and attempted to categorize the responses based on emerging themes. Common elements in the statements were noted and coded. The group then met again and discussed the newly coded statements and identified major themes occurring within the reflections. The resulting ideas were again sorted and negotiated through the group from which each theme became clear. The periodic review by a group of colleagues of the pre-service teachers’ statements served to verify the accuracy of determination of the themes and placement of the statements in the subcategories for inter-rater reliability.
A working definition of each theme was developed from the reflections. Responses from the reflection emerged in three themes: a) learner characteristics, b) classroom management and environment and c) teaching strategies.
The themes were defined in the following manner:
Learner characteristics were described as both student strengths and weaknesses and included the performance modality of students. Learning styles consisted of the identification of differing learning characteristics focused on learning styles of the students that would have implications for instruction. Performance modes of learning were described as the diverse ways in which learners approach the learning tasks.
Classroom management was identified as the pedagogical techniques used to maintain a healthy learning environment. Classroom management strategies included the ways teachers maintain control that are conducive to student growth. This area also focused on techniques aimed at decreasing disruptive behaviors and increasing productive behavior.
Teaching strategies included both what is taught and how it is taught. This theme was driven by how lessons were organized, the content of instructional materials and the focus of the lesson. Teaching strategies included planning methods, teacher and student centered approaches for different content areas, and individual and group teaching strategies.
The focus of this paper is the reflective statements of the pre-service teachers regarding the theme of teaching strategies. Forty-five percent of the total response of the pre-service teachers occurred within this theme. Data statements within the teaching strategies theme were additionally found to follow sub-strands or subcategories including: 1) organization, 2) active engagement, 3) specific strategies and activities, 4) modifications and extensions 5) expectations and motivation of students. After data statements were placed in subcategories, they were reviewed again and adjustments made. In some cases, subcategories changed. For example, technology was originally treated as a separate subcategory and then redistributed. The results are depicted in Table 2 – Frequency of Pre-Service Teachers’ Responses in the Subcategories of Teaching Strategies.
To understand the level of reflective engagement of the pre-service teachers’ experiences, the data were again analyzed and particular subcategories, related to the kind of engagement, emerged. Subcategories concerning engagement were teacher-centered and student-centered teaching strategies. If the reflection focused on the action of the pre-service teacher and how they reacted or felt about the use of a teaching strategy, it was coded as teacher-centered. Reflective statements whose contextual content focused on looking at teaching strategies related to theories and knowledge and the impact on students were coded student-centered. Such student centered reflection was also noted as a higher cognition level of reflective engagement. The ability of pre-service teachers to view how their beliefs and practices impact their students in the classroom allows them to demonstrate metacognition in teaching. Displayed in Table 3 are the frequency and percentage of responses by subcategories of reflective engagement on the theme of teaching strategies.
The reflective engagement for Secondary, Kinesiology and Special Education appeared to include equally teacher-centered and student-centered comments. However, review of individual pre-service teacher’s level of reflection revealed a continuum of reflection beginning with early episodes at the teacher-centered level and continuing across contexts to a student-centered content.
Results
This study reports on the reflective statements of pre-service teachers in several sections of an Educational Psychology course. It was guided by four research questions. The questions were:
1) What are ways that pre-service teachers engage in reflection?
2) What are the levels of reflective engagement by the pre-service teachers?
3) What pre-service teachers discovered about teaching through their reflection?
4) How the reflection done by pre-service teachers impacted pedagogical ability?
The ability of the pre-service teachers to reflect on their prior experiences in framing their responses begins to illustrate how their reflective practices throughout the semester impacted their pre-service field based experiences. The analysis of the experiences of the pre-service teachers revealed findings pertinent to development of a reflective orientation, and in particular, an orientation that looks at an experience from multiple perspectives. The theme of teaching strategies was selected for examination because of the relevance of such activities to creating a reflective practitioner. Most of the students’ field based college classes incorporated activities related to the methods and teaching strategies to use in their field based classes were reflective of such emphasis on the methodology of teaching strategies that acts as fundamental to most teacher preparation programs. While most of the early concerns of the first year teacher centers on classroom management, the pre-service teachers’ reflections focused on teaching strategies. Nearly twice as many chose to comment or reflect on experiences related to teaching strategies rather than focusing on classroom management. Forty-five percent of all reflections occurred within the theme of teaching strategies. Reflections occurred on a continuum ranging from teacher-centered statements such as “teaching is fun” that represents an egocentric focus on self to open reflective statements that revealed a more student-centered perspective and provides insight into the teaching situation. An example of such movement is, “I realized that when I was teaching new material that students had not been exposed to before, I really had to break it down for them to understand.” Knowing that a pre-service teacher loved what they were doing is powerful, but the fact that the pre-service teacher realized that how the material is presented varies with the situation and the learners is an integral part of being a reflective practitioner and has rich contextual meaning.
The structure of the middle school and high school especially because of specific class periods and larger number of students in each secondary class makes organization more important. The structure of the middle school and high school with very specific class periods and larger number of students in each classroom makes organization more important. Pre-service teachers indicated that they had developed a new understanding of the time and effort necessary to direct the learning activities of a large group of students, especially because of the class time frame. Such statements as “You must always be prepared and organized – one person is responsible for so many students” and “When you plan ahead of time, lessons usually work a lot better! Plan! Plan! Plan!” were typical comments. Because their subject area instruction classes were usually from another academic disciplines such as math or social studies, their exposure to teaching strategies occurs in more limited methodology courses that are not linked to specific content areas.
The length of field based time was indicative of increase or decreased reflection. In reviewing the data statements of the pre-service teachers, it was noted that the more time spent in the classroom, the richer the reflection. Pre-service teacher in their second semester of field based experience appeared to focus more on the learner-centered classroom and appeared to have a clearer understanding of the need to move beyond organizational concerns to look at how to wor effectively with students.
Pre-service teachers’ reflective statements about teaching strategies focused on the following:
-
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The importance of organization, planning, procedures, structure and consistency.
- Different techniques to keep students actively involved and engaged.
- Productive value of specific teaching strategies and activities.
- Modifications and extensions to use with diverse learners.
- Expectations and motivation strategies for student success.
Findings are presented by focusing on the above subcategories and illustrative examples are given for representation and clarification of the theme of teaching strategies. The statements were selected as exemplary responses because they were typical of the statements in the data set.
Importance of Planning and Organization
One category that emerged from the pre-service teachers’ responses was the importance of planning and organization Pre-service teachers noted the importance of established procedures, structure and consistency from their experience in the classroom (see Table 5). The reflections of many pre-service teachers shared new understandings about the amount of planning and organization necessary for success in the classroom. The level of understanding about the importance of effective and thorough planning appeared to be consistent throughout the reflective statements of the pre-service students. Their first hand experience in the classroom made them realize the importance of good planning as an essential component to effective practice and was necessary to address the needs of students.
Different Techniques to Keep Student Actively Engaged
In the instructional design and methods lab classes, the pre-service teachers in the teacher preparation program are exposed to a variety of techniques to use in the classroom and their creativity with those techniques is expected to be demonstrated in their mini portfolios and in their share sessions of field based activities with their peers in the college classroom. Pre-service teaches’ creativity was also indicated by their reflections in Table 5. Pre-service teachers mentioned several different techniques to keep students on task. Their reflections in this subcategory of teaching strategies ranged from “model instructions for students” to “if students are not responding to instruction, I can improve that by talking slower and writing bigger. As one pre-service teacher illustrated, “students are more active in the lesson when they are involved in activities that revolve around the concept that you are teaching rather than a direct teaching method.” Such a comment can be considered as reflective of both the contextual content level that focuses on the student perspective and on the knowledge base of the pre-service teacher. The level of generality or specificity in this subcategory was more pronounced that in the previous subcategory. The amount of involvement and level understanding in regards to techniques utilized to engage students in learning experiences appeared to be in relation to the number of methodology courses included in the pre-service teacher’s certification program.
Specific Teaching Strategies and Activities
Pre-service teachers reflected on their experiences with demonstrations, cooperative learning, guided reading, writer’s workshop, and re-teach techniques and their value in the classroom (see Table 6). However, many of their reflective statements focused on specific actions and what the pre-service gained from the experience. Such reflections had minimal depth and on the beginning level of teacher-centered focus on the reflection continuum. A smaller portion of reflective statements included the student’s perspective, which was indicative of a comment such as “I learned the importance of closure and relating lessons to their life experiences.” Such a comment can be considered as involved with both the contextual content level that focuses on the student perspective and draws on the knowledge base of the pre-service teacher. Only a smaller proportion of pre-service teachers were able to focus on the impact on students and how that related to the application of teaching strategies knowledge and theory in classroom which placed their reflective engagement at the student-centered area of the reflection continuum.
Modifications and Extensions
One of the greatest challenges in the classroom for the pre-service teacher can be developing the ability to understand the influence of beliefs, prejudice, and social structures on the classroom environment. To prevent those factors from allowing them to support learning and development of all students and use teaching methods that reach all students is a challenge. Preventing those social-cultural factors from interfering in learning and in the development of all students presented a challenge to find teaching methods that reach all students. That was noted by pre-service teachers in their reflective comments in Table 7. One student reports great satisfaction in “focusing on helping students achieve their given goals.” The exemplars also demonstrate differing depth of reflection including one concerning a teacher-centered approach to preparing better lessons through making adaptations. Another example is more student-centered and looks at the need to consider the perspective of the students and adapting to interact more effectively.
Expectations and Motivation of Students
Table 8 notes the importance of motivational strategies for student success as identified by the pre-service teachers. One felt that an awareness of “ways to help and motivate all students” had been part of what was learned in the classroom setting. Another pre-service teacher felt that the “positive influence that a learning community between teachers, staff, parents and students” can have an impact on the improvement of motivation. The contextual content of the second reflective statement is at a higher level of understanding of the interaction of student needs and knowledge based application and is on the student-centered end of the reflection continuum.
Other areas that drew notice from pre-service teachers were technology support and the need for humor. One pre-service teacher noted, “I have learned that technology resources are not equally distributed between schools from the same district.” Another pre-service teacher said, “Having a sense of humor will keep you from becoming stressed out.”
Sometime experience also brought into focus what not to do. One student demonstrates, “I learned that worksheets all the time are not the answer.” The need for modifications and extensions for use with diverse learners was realized by this pre-service student who wrote this reflection,” Maybe I should take time to create a book of modifications and extensions to be use in my classroom. It may be a useful tool for me when planning lesson plans.”
This review of pre-service teachers’ reflective statements focused on the theme of teaching strategies and included five subcategories that ranged from organization and planning to expectations and motivations. Reflective engagement was also viewed as it related to a teacher-centered or student-centered focus.
Discussion
When asked about their field based experiences, pre-service teachers’ reflections focused on learner characteristics, classroom management, and teaching strategies. Their reflections concerning teaching strategies were forty-five percent of their total responses. That theme was further sorted into subcategories that included procedures, activities for students, ways to keep students on task, modifications and adaptations for all learners, motivation, and other specific instructional strategies. The largest areas of focus within the teaching strategies category related to the organization and the application of a specific teaching strategy in the classroom. Pre-service students start with an egocentric idea (teacher-centered) about what is important in the classroom. The focus is on their actions and how they reflect on them. However, their reflections revealed that, as their experiences in the classroom increased, pre-service teachers moved along the continuum to a focus that was more student-centered. As their reflections enriched their understanding of how the theories learned in the college classroom can be applied to classroom practice, the focus moved to what they could do to make students more successful.
The focus on planning and organization and specific strategies for use in the classroom dominated what pre-service teachers discovered about teaching through their reflection. Most pre-service teachers demonstrated an understanding of how contextual content that focused on the student impacted their pedagogical ability.
Pre-service teacher statements indicated that their understanding about the role of the teacher improved during their field based placement. This appears to be driven by the methodology courses and the field based assignments of the pre-service teachers. The field based experiences helped them to learn through application of an action.
The class reflection activity indicated a positive understanding of the effect that reflection can have on practice. Data show that some pre-service teachers were able to reorganize and apply theory in the classroom through reflective engagement and that such reflection existed on a continuum of development from highly teacher-centered to highly student-centered. This pre-service teacher’s statement best illustrated the value of this reflective practice, “I also learned to utilize the theories I have been taught in [class] in my teaching. I found it really helpful to perform tasks in these areas for my teaching in the future.” The structured reflection activity assisted pre-service teachers in developing a deeper understanding how they could apply the theories and processes learned in the college classroom to a more effective learning experience for the students in their classrooms.
Implications for Practice
The results of this study suggest that repeated use of reflection throughout the teacher preparation experience, and particularly in a structured reflection questionnaire, can be useful for encouraging growth and professional development. Although not a new idea, these data add to the conversation by illuminating what specific discourse is chosen by pre-service teachers, of different expected certifications for reflection of their time in the field-based classroom. Also, a clear delineation developed showing that reflective engagement progresses along a continuum from teacher-centered to student-centered, rather than occurring at different levels. This presents a new conceptual model. Reflective engagement and self-correction were shown to lead to an understanding and improved performance.
The discoveries and realizations generated by self-reflection have the potential to generate continued development for pre-service teachers, and provide ways for college professors to promote continued, deepening and sophisticated levels of reflection.
It is often hard for professors who teach theories basic to the content of an educational psychology course to make real life application for pre-service teachers come alive and be understood within the process. Field based placements provided such an opportunity. However, the discoveries and realizations relative to students’ understanding of those theories was increased through reflective engagement and allowed the pre-service teacher as well as for the professor to see the connections and to assess their understanding.
Conclusion
The findings of this study suggest that structured reflection, as related to field based placement, increases the understanding and application of various educational theories for pre-service students. Through their experiences, pre-service teachers reported growth and development in organization and procedures, activities for students, ways to keep students on task, ability to create modifications, and/or adaptations for all learners, motivation techniques, and different specific instructional strategies.
These results support previous research studies (Pedro, 2005; Long & Stuart, 2004; Zengaro & Iran-Nejad, 2007; Downey, 2008; and Ward & McCotter, 2004) that report pre-service teachers’ ability to develop a general understanding of reflection is important and points the way to how reflective practice can be encouraged in different contexts. The findings also extend previous research by also pointing out the subtle variances in orientation of the secondary and elementary certification pre-service teachers as well as a continuum of reflective engagement from teacher-centered to student-centered focus. Reflective engagement serves to promote and continue the development of pre-service teachers’ understanding of the nature of teaching and learning.
Future research would benefit from consideration of providing structured reflective exercises at various points during a field-based experience for pre-service teachers. Questions such as how would a reflection questionnaire that was probing encourage increased critical thinking and deeper met cognitive skills influence the depth of reflective engagement? When should reflective exercises be undertaken in relation to observations, field-based experience, and execution of lessons? Finally, would group reflective activities be beneficial when used related to the course content of the educational psychology course?
Appendix
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